![]() Semioticians called these “alternative” or “oppositional” readings. Because people are not all the same but are shaped by various cultural factors, such as class, gender, race, nationality, and so on, the meanings they attach to the words, images, and sounds contained in a media text might be quite different to the meaning they were meant to receive. In the 1960s, a number of semioticians, most notably Roland Barthes and Umberto Eco, posited that audiences do not always receive the “preferred” message intended by the producers of the text (Murdoch 2016). However, this became viewed as too simplistic, and its characterization of a passive, homogenous media audience as disempowering. Known as the “hypodermic” model, it was based on early observations of audience reactions to Western mass media and propaganda and argued that media had a direct influence on its audience and society: The media text contained a message that was “injected” into a passive audience, who received, understood, and were influenced by it in an unaltered form (Bineham 1988). ![]() The ways in which media producers encode messages and users decode them are bound up here in a complex hierarchy of cultural specificity and power relations.ĭuring the first half of the twentieth century a simple linear model of media communication was in vogue. ![]() ![]() Popularized in the 1970s, it suggests that there are multiple ways for media users to interpret media texts. Encoding/decoding is a communication model that offers a theoretical approach to how messages in media, particularly mass media, are produced, disseminated, and understood. ![]()
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